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These observations among the Yaminawa reinforce the conclusions of other studies in western Amazonia suggesting a more ancient status of tobacco usage in shamanism than ayahuasca, which appears to have emerged in its current form in this region in more recent times as a result of colonial and interethnic contacts Based on reports about the practice of shamanism in the past and comments made in informal conversations with my Yaminawa hosts, it appears that ayahuasca was not consumed in the past: In the past, Xawaxta once told me,[the ancestors] did not know how to take ayahuasca, they lived only with rub sawa . These observations among the Yaminawa reinforce the conclusions of other studies in western Amazonia suggesting a more ancient status of tobacco usage in shamanism than ayahuasca, which appears to have emerged in its current form in this region in more recent times as a result of colonial and interethnic contacts (Gow, 1994